by Akiko Niimiya
But, please wait for a moment. Before I go on, the definition of "Japanese" and "Japanese community" should be cleared. In this essay, "Japanese" means the people who were born and grew up in Japan, later came to the U.S., whose native language is Japanese, and who belong to the country of Japan, like me. "Japanese community" also means the community that consists of those "Japanese" people.
I had never met Japanese-Americans before I came to United States. Actually, Japanese junior and sinior high school study very little about Japanese-Americans in the subject of Japanese history. However, it is a very small part within a huge history.
But, who is Japanese-American? How to distinguish them? According to the Japanese-American National Museum, which is in Downtown, Los Angeles, Japanese-Americans live in the United States of America. Many were born in the U.S. and only speak English. Some of them can speak Japanese as well as English. Some were born in Japan and became naturalized American citizens. All Japanese-Americans have families who came from Japan at one time.
It sounds they are almost American. But I do feel one thing very strongly. It is that they do like Japan and Japanese things more than Japanese do. It might be this is a kind of yearning. This is like the situation that many Japanese yearn for Western culture. People always yearn for what they do not have. Sometimes, they are very "Japanese" much more than Japanese people who were born and grown up in Japan.
Well, as you see, I am very interested in them. But, to me, one of the most interesting things about them is the language that they are using. There was a kind of strange feeling, when I met a Japanese-American. First, it wasn't clear what it was. But soon I noticed where it came from. It was about the use of English, because their faces are Japanese's or similar, but they speak English as their primary language, as all other American people do. Japanese language is not their primary one. Basically, they do not use "Japanese" to talk, although they look "Japanese." People may say that it is a trifling thing, especially in such a melting pot; Los Angeles. However, to me, who had just come to the U.S. and never met them before, it was a very surprising thing. In addition, later, when they spoke Japanese, I was surprised again. Since then, I have been always paying attention about their use of language of them.
Indeed, associating with Japanese-Americans points out many noteworthy things. There is nothing special to write about their English. The most interesting thing is the difference between "Japanese language" which Japanese-Americans use and "Japanese language" which Japanese use. So, this essay should be focus on Japanese-Americans' Japanese language. And according to my guess, there are some relations between their Japanese and their history. Knowing something about their use of language leads me to know about them much deeper.
Well then, this essay is going to focus on Japanese-Americans and their language(s). But, before I continue to write, it is necessity to mention about their history, generation, and community quickly to introduce what they are.
There is one of the biggest Japanese-American community in this entire United States, in Los Angeles. It is called "Little Tokyo", which is located in Downtown, Los Angeles. Before the World War 2, it had been prospecting very much. However after the war, it was getting weaker and weaker. Because of bad public peace. Of course, many Japanese-Americans are still living in Downtown, L. A, especially second generation people. But also many Japanese-Americans are living in Torrance and Gardena.
Wait a second. What does this "generation" mean? There might have been found the words "second generation," "third generation" and so on. Those words express about each of Japanese-American's generations, since their ancestors first arrived at the U.S. However, Japanese-Americans don't use these words much, even the people who don't speak Japanese. What they use often is "Issei", "Nisei", "Sansei", "Yonsei", and so on. These words are becoming English words lately. Microsoft Word, which is one of the most famous word processing programs, is now being used to write this essay, and this word processing software contains very convenient spelling check program. Whenever it finds unusual or wrong words, it may tell to the user. I have just typed these four words, and "Nisei" and "Sansei" were accepted. It means these words are already known as English words, doesn't it?
"Sei" means generation in Japanese. And "ni" means two, "san" is three, and "yon" is four. "Issei" means the first generation. "Ichi" means one. This "Is(sei)" is a different form of ichi.
The first Japanese-Americans arrived in the United States between the middle of 1880's ~1924. 1924 was the year which Japanese Immigration to the United States was banned. At this time about 200,000 Japanese were permitted to immigrate into the United States. Many of them were men, and came from agricultural districts in Japan. Women also came to the U.S. to get married with those men. Those women were called "picture bride". Because they had engaged before they met their future husbands. They had seen each other only on the pictures. Many were working as farmers, working for Japanese-American employers, or having their own small shops. They are called "Issei". Because they were the first generation to arrive to the U.S. as immigrants. And this is the generation of migration.
Nisei were born in around 1910~1940. All they are Issei's children. They were born in the U.S., and got their education in the U.S., too. Therefor Nisei are much more Americanized than Issei who were born and grown up in Japan. However, they were still minorities. It was an unchanged truth. So, they had hard times to get job, and their right was also being restricted. This continued until the end of World War 2. This is a generation of before World War 2.
Sansei were born in the U.S., after the War, generally. Many student could get their education at high school or university. Likewise, many Sansei only speak English.
Yonsei are young generation. Some of them already have their kids who are "Gosei", "go" means five in Japanese. They hardly speak Japanese. I know many Yonsei, because they and I are in almost same ages, but there is only one person who speaks Japanese as well as English.
I have never heard about "Rokusei," who is supposed to be Gosei's Children. Roku is "six" in Japanese.
These division is based on the migrants who came to the U.S. first (1891~1924). However, nowadays, there are also other kinds of Issei, Nisei and Sansei. After 1950, after World War 2, new migrants came to the U.S., and the latest new migrants are the people who got lottery green cards. They are also Issei. So the division of generation is getting harder and complicated. For example, here are two of my friends, Victor and Arlene. Some interviews with them will be held later. Anyway we are around the same ages. However Victor is Yonsei, on the other hand, Arlene is Nisei. Victor's great -grandparents arrived at Hawaii from Japan as original Issei. On the contrary, Arlene's parents came from Japan after the World War 2, as Issei, not very long time ago.
Now, they are living in the United States as same as all other Americans do, but it had been taking long long time to get their present lives in the U.S. Let's follow the road which historical Japanese-Americans left.
1790, U.S Congress decreed that "any alien being a free white person who has lived in the U.S. for two years is eligible for citizens." Revised to include "persons of African nativity or descent" in 1873. Most Japanese remained " aliens ineligible to citizenship" until 1952.
1905, Japan won the Russian-Japanese War. "Yellow Peril" image of Japan was prompted, and anti-Japanese movement in U.S. gained momentum.
1913, California passed an "Alien Land Law," stipulating that Asians, "aliens ineligible to citizenship," could not own land. 13 more states passed similar laws to discourage Japanese settlement.
And finally 1924, National Origins Act effectively ended Japanese-Immigrant to the U.S.
1941, U.S entered World War 2. Japan attacked on Pearl Harbor, and more than 1000 Issei, who were community leaders, teachers and so on, were arrested within 48 hours.
1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed "Executive Order 9066" which allowed the U.S. Government eventually to incarcerate 120,000 Japanese-American in " relocation camps." 10 concentration camps were hastily constructed in inland deserts and wasteland.
1944, Japanese-American could get out of those concentration camps.
1946, March 20, Last of the interment camps, in Tule Lake, was closed.
1952, McCarran-Walter Immigration And Naturalization Act passed by Congress over President Truman's veto, allowing Japanese immigrants to become naturalized citizens.
1956, California Alien Land Law was repealed by popular vote in general election. To repealed this law, one Japanese migrant was active in. His name was Sei Fujii.(This "Sei" is just his first name. There is no relations with "sei" which means generation in Japanese.) I'm going to write about him and his activity later in this essay.
1976, President Gerald R. Ford issued a presidential proclamation terminating "Executive Order 9066." This proclamation didn't contain an apology.
1983 Commission on the Wartime Relocation and internment of Civilians published Personal Justice Denied, which recommends compensating all living victims of the internment.
1990, First redress payments made at a ceremony in Washington, DC. And White House expressed their apology with signature of president George Bush. Attached is the letter from White House and Executive Order 9066.
These are just summaries of their long history. I think they has been always fighting with something. Especially Issei, Nisei and sansei. There was a very big war between the U.S. and Japan. They were Americans, but they were America's enemies, too. They were fighting with prejudice and discrimination, actual war, and themselves. At that time, they may have been puzzled about their identities. Even Yonsei, who were born in this peaceful generation, are still fighting with prejudice and discrimination.
During the World War 2, many young Japanese-American fought for the U.S. Although they fought the war as American soldiers, they were treated very bad. When the U.S. made Japanese-American military units, some of them had not already used Japanese. Therefore, what the U.S. first did was to make Japanese school in the concentration camps. It may have made some different their use of the language now. By the way, on the contrary, Japan banned the use of English at that time. These two decisions decided the issue.
The official language of the United States is English. However, as you know, this country, especially Los Angeles, is melting pot. In our daily lives, we can hear many kinds of languages. Spanish (we may be able to say that Spanish is another official language of Los Angeles.), Russian, Armenian (the use of Armenian is increasing rapidly.), and so on. In such a country, Japanese-Americans are using English as their primary language. Because they are Americans. Because they are making living in the United States. Thus, English must be their primary language. I have one result which can prove this idea. The beginning of October, 1996, I had several interviews with Japanese-American which I selected randomly at a big Japanese-American craft show. As a part of results, which I got from these interviews, I can say that their primary language is English definitely. All of these interviews have done in English. Some people answered that they spoke Japanese. But Japanese is not their primary one. It's foreign language. They do use English as their primary language. It is also their native language.
But, what is primary language? Before continuing to write, it is important to clear the definitions of several kinds of language. According to linguists, "primary language" is what people use mainly to survive in their daily life. It is most used language. It does not have to be his/her native language. And it can be changed. It doesn't have to be perfect. So, I can say, "my current primary language is English, but it was Japanese." although my English is not perfect.
Native language is something which we got it in naturally, when we were growing up. And we can't change our own native language. Thus, native language could be primary language. But primary language is not necessarily always native language.
I'd like to introduce some cases, which are based on my own experiences, to search the differences in the same language; Japanese.
One Sunday, I met my friend Arlene, who is Nisei Japanese-American, 26 years old and whose parents are both Japanese (actually they are Issei). She speaks both English and Japanese. She only uses Japanese when she talks with her parents. So her primary language is English. Usually we use English when we talk, although her Japanese is much better than my English. But today I asked her to use Japanese to talk.
The biggest difference, which I noticed while we were talking, was "Japanese words" which she was using. Some words, which she used, were a kind of old and obsolete words that Japanese seldom use lately. It's not bad, on the contrary, it may be good, because her Japanese sounds very polite and beautiful, and not polluted by slang which young generation often use. Actually, some of them were the words which my grandma used to use, and some were what I often heard when I was very young. And strange to say, those words reminded me "Japan". (And maybe my childhood, too.)
For example, when we are eating lunch, that restaurant served tea with a very cute tea pot which she had really wanted to buy. So another friend suggested her to buy that pot from that restaurant. Then she said, " No, I don't want to get this "bacchii bacchii" one." First, I didn't get it. But she repeated, "This is bacchii bacchii." And then I finally recognized this old Japanese word "bacchii", and It so surprised me. Because I had never expected to hear this word, especially in the U.S. Even in Japan, it's rare to listen to this word lately.
"Bacchii" means "dirty" in Japanese. After I got home, I checked this word by using my Japanese dictionary, but I could not find it. Isn't it regular word? I wondered. Is this a slang? No, it's not. Because everyone knows this word as one of the traditional Japanese word.
As far as I know, people (used to) use this word for babies or kids. But, in this case, according to my guess, she meant, " I don't want buy this used one." would rather than "I don't want to buy this dirty one."
I'm not sure that people are still using this word now in Japan. There is no children in my current environment. So It could be the reason why I had not heard any babyish words lately. But, at least, I hadn't been hearing this word for long time. Far from it, I had almost forgotten the existence of this old Japanese word. It was the first time that I heard this word in the U.S. and from the person who is not Japanese.
Well then, why did it happen? Why did it happen only to her? Not me? There are some possible reasons.
First, her Japanese is not updated. Although we can speak our primary language very well, we are always getting and learning new words in our daily life, because we are using it everyday whether we like it or not. ( Otherwise we can't call it our primary language.) The number of word is unlimited, and people and the media are creating and sending new words one after another. Thus, our language (or vocabulary), which we use as our primary language, is always updated, though we don't be conscious. However, how about her Japanese? It is not her primary one, so she uses it with limited people ( only to her parents), and limited way ( only at home). In addition, she said that she seldom watched Japanese TV program or movie. It is impossible to be updated. It happened because it was not her primary language.
Compared to another person, who has same situation as Arlene's, it'll be proved . 22-year-olds Debbie is Nisei Japanese-American, and both her parents are Japanese who had been born and grown up in Japan, then later immigrated to the U.S. Debbie uses both English and Japanese. As same as Arlene, she uses English as her primary language, and only when she talks to her parents, she uses Japanese. So her Japanese seems same kind of what Arlene uses. However, there is little difference between these two young Japanese-Americans' Japanese. Debbie's Japanese is much closer to modern and current Japanese. She uses old-fashioned words, but she also uses new words and slung words which young generation Japanese use.
There are two Japanese-Americans, and they are in same generation, and their situation about language are almost same. However, one uses old Japanese, and another uses modern Japanese. What makes this gap? It's Japanese TV programs. Debbie often goes to Japanese rental video shop to borrow recent TV programs.
In Japan, it's illegal to rent videotapes, which somebody videotaped from television broadcasting, for money purpose. But, in the U.S., it may be no problem, because here is not Japan. If it is America's TV program, it will be illegal, too. So there are many Japanese rental video shops in and around Los Angeles. In addition, it's not expensive to borrow. It may be only two dollars for four or five videotapes for two nights.
What Debbie borrows frequently is Melrose Place kind of television drama, some comedies, which her favorite young actors play, and some music programs which are for young generation, like MTV. Those programs must be provided in modern "cool" Japanese, and content many slang. Thus, Debbie's Japanese is being updated by watching these current Japanese TV programs. Japanese is not her primary language, but it's much closer to her primary language than Arlene's Japanese. Keeping in touch with current language can be updated one's language, even it is not his/her primary one. On the other hand, how about Arlene? She said that she seldom watched Japanese TV and even movies. Watching TV or not watching TV, in short, keeping in touch with present language or not, it is making their Japanese different.
Incidentally, Debbie knows some new Japanese words which I, Japanese, didn't know. What does it mean? It's also proving this assumption which primary language is always being updated and other language could be old-fashioned. My native language is Japanese, but now I don't use it much. I do use English in my daily life, although it is my foreign language. So now, English is my primary language. Consequently, what is happening to me? My Japanese is being out of date, day by day. I'm not kidding. Actually, Debbie knew the newest Japanese words which I didn't know. In addition, it is hard to remember some Japanese words which I seldom use. Whenever I sent fax to my parents, they said that my ability of writing Chinese characters was going down. My letter looks like what child writes. When I write official letter in Japanese, I do need Japanese and Chinese character dictionaries. Certainly, my knowledge of Japanese language is being lost.
Second, the way to learn language is different. When we use one language as our native language, do we go to language school to learn it? No, we don't. We got our native language when we were growing up day by day. Although her both parents are Japanese, she was growing up using English mainly. Then she took Japanese classes later as many Japanese-Americans' children do. I mastered Japanese naturally, but I didn't learn Japanese at school. In the same way, Arlene mastered English, but she didn't learn. Then, later I began to learn English, and she learned Japanese. I call it "second language". English is my second language, before I call it "primary language".
Here is another difference. This is not only about Arlene but also about many Japanese-Americans. Arlene speaks Japanese very well, but she doesn't "READ" or "WRITE" Japanese. Many Japanese-Americans, who speak Japanese, don't read or write Japanese. Because, there is one big difference between English and Japanese. That is letter. In English, there is only one kind of character "Alphabet (26 letters)". On the other hand, there are three kinds of characters in Japanese. Those are "hiragana (46letters)", "katakana (46letters)", and "Chinese characters (we call it kanji)". It is said that Japanese people use at least 2000~3000 kinds of kanji in their daily life. Many people, who learn Japanese, give up to read and write Japanese because of this kanji. Like Arlene, many people read and write hiragana and katakana, but not kanji.
According to Debbie, she has one problem whenever she goes to Japanese video shop. It is about kanji. She doesn't read and write kanji, either. therefore she can't choose videotapes which she really wants. She tells staff, who is working for the video shop, what she wants to see, and asks them to choose some for her. A friend of mine doesn't want to go to Japan because of kanji, too. There are always some kanji in most of all information signs in Japan. He said that he had no idea where he supposed to go.
How about environment? Not only Japanese-Americans' Japanese, but also Japanese people's Japanese can be influenced by which kind of environment they are living in. By its environment, his/her Japanese could be polite, nasty, childish, and so on. But this is something special. Here is another my friend, Victor. He is Yonsei (fourth generation) Japanese-American, 34years old, and has a Japanese wife. He has four sisters and brothers, but he is the only one who speaks both Japanese and English. Anyway there is another noteworthy point with his Japanese. Japanese, which he uses, is feminine.
Why did his Japanese become so feminine? Incidentally, he is gentle person, but not feminine person at all. According to my guess, the reason is his environment. He and his wife, who is Japanese and speaks both Japanese and English, have one rule. It is about the use of language. At home, they use Japanese, and outside of their home, they use English. " It sounds easy, but it's difficult to keep, I often use Japanese outside of home, too." his wife Sachiko says. In addition, Victor is working for California State as CPA, so he has several Japanese-American colleagues in his office. He said that some of them spoke Japanese, but usually they didn't use Japanese in their office. So, what kind of environment is he living in? Only the way he uses his Japanese when he talks with Sachiko at home. What does it mean? He always listens to Japanese which Woman speaks. This is his environment about Japanese language. That's why his Japanese is feminine Japanese.
However, it is difficult to happen to Japanese people. As I mentioned, Japanese people's Japanese could change, but not this kind. Because it is impossible to change one's native language fundamentally.
By the way, according to Victor, he doesn't like his such Japanese. So what does he do? Sometimes, he goes to Japanese rental video shop, and rents some Japanese movies. And then, he dare try to use manly Japanese words which heroes use in those movies.
Whenever he listens to a new word, he writes it down, and uses it. It's very good way to have a new word and language.
So far, I have picked up some examples, and written about their "speaking," "reading," and "writing", but not "pronunciation". In addition, these all examples are about young generation. It's not very fair to research for Japanese-Americans.
Her name is Yaeko. She is Nisei, 85years old, and living alone in Downtown, Los Angeles, as many old generation Japanese-American do. Her both parents were Japanese, and came to Hawaii as first immigrants (Issei). So she was born in Hawaii, she is an original Nisei. Her parents hadn't spoken English much, especially her mother hadn't spoken English at all. So she had been growing up in Japanese family which had used to use Japanese mainly, although they had been in Hawaii. Then later she began to learn English.
She has been using English for more than 70years. She does speak English. She perfectly understands what people say, and she speaks what she wants to say completely, but her English is little different. What is it? It is her pronunciation. Her pronunciation is the one which typical Japanese people's pronunciation. I have seen many Japanese people who began to study English after they had grown up. It's very easy to distinguish those Japanese people because of their English pronunciation. The other way around, her Japanese is perfect. Speaking, reading, and writing, it's just perfect. She also writes Kanji (Chinese characters), as well as Japanese, who are living in Japan, do. Actually, she is Japanese-American. However she seems Japanese would rather than Japanese-American. And of course, her Japanese pronunciation is perfect.
Does it happen to Japanese people? No. Every languages have regional dialect, so sometimes, it sounds different, although these are same language. However it's not caused by one's ability.
And then here is one more noteworthy point. Her daughter is Jeanne who is Sansei( third generation), 56 years old and was born in Hawaii. Jeanne's native and primary language is English which is exactly same as American's English. So, although, Yaeko and Jeanne, their common language is English, (Actually, English is the only one way which they can communicate each other.) the English, which Yaeko uses, and the English, which Jeanne uses, are different kinds of English. Whenever I hear their conversation, I wonder. I do wonder. Because it sounds they are using different language to talk, although they are mother and daughter. "Do they really understand each other? " "Don't they think anything about the language which her real daughter or mother uses? " "Don't they want to have language which is completely same? "
Arlene and her mother also have this kind of conversation. But they use Japanese to talk. It is funny, because it sounds that Arlene always orders something to her mother. Anyway, to me, it sounds they are using different kinds of Japanese, too.
Arlene's mother, Toshi, dare use Japanese always. I know she understands English, but she uses Japanese. Even somebody talks to her in English, she often answers in Japanese. I can guess the reason. About the language which is not our native language, listening is easier than speaking. And using one's native language is more comfortable than using primary language (when one's primary and native language are different).
So I 'd like to introduce very interesting case. It's about conversation between two people, whose native languages are different, but both of them understand both languages. (more than two could be possible, but basically two.)
I guess many people can't understand and believe this conversation, but it does exist. And I am one of them who use this interesting conversation. There are two people, one of them speaks his/her native language, and another speaks his/her native language which is not first one's language. They also understand another one's language. It is important. It could not be possible without this condition.
It is difficult to explain and understand, so let's assume there are two people. One is Japanese-American (A), who speaks English as his/her native language, and understands Japanese as his/her second language, too. And another person is Japanese(B) whose native language is Japanese, but also understands English as his/her second language. During the conversation, (A) only speaks English, and (B) only speaks Japanese.
(A) " What would you like to eat for dinner?"
(B) " Watashi wa sushi ga tabetai desu. (literally, I'd like to eat sushi.)"
(A) " Sushi is expensive. Let's eat something cheaper."
(B) "Okane ga naikara akirame masu. ( We don't have enough money. I'll give up.)"
(A) "How about eating Chinese food?"
(B) "Sou shimashou. (OK.) "
It proves that we are much comfortable with our native language. And it also proves that listening is easier that speaking, when we think about language which is not our native language.
Through this essay, I have been describing Japanese-Americans' Japanese language. In conclusion, as I described, there are several interesting points in their use of language. Each of those cases vary and are in different situation. However, the reason why those happened is only one. Because Japanese language is not their primary language. For Japanese-Americans, except Issei (First generation), Japanese language is not their native language, far from that, it not even primary for many of them. It's totally foreign language. Here is my very simple question again. " What are they using ?" The answer is English. English is their primary language.
I was born and grew up in Japan. Japan is a kind of special country. Most of all people there are Japanese. Actually, since I entered kindergarten and until I graduated from high school, I had never had any classmates who had not been Japanese. Far from that, it was very rare to see foreigner in my city where took one hour to get by train from Tokyo. I grew up in such a country until the age of twenty four. There must be a gap that is about environment that we grew up between Japanese and Americans. To the people, who grew up in the United States, especially in Los Angeles, my this surprising encounter may not be worth writing. However, to me, who has just come to the U.S. and never met Japanese-American ( in short, the people who have Japanese faces but don't speak Japanese.) before, it was really big happening. I am not surprising anymore. Because they are American.
One day, I asked one question to a Japanese-American friend. I had been keeping this question since I had came here, but it had never been asked. " What are you? " This is an impolite question. It could be hurt somebody. Some people might get angry. However, I dare asked. The friend answered immediately, " American."
They are living in the United States, and using English as same as other Americans do. To them, the use of Japanese is optional. It's like a situation that Japanese people speak English as foreign language.
Reference: Japanese American National Museum 369 E. First Street, Los Angeles, CA 90012 Telephone: (213) 625-0414
Personal communication:
Arlene F.
Debbie M.
Jeanne Y.
Toshi F.
Victor & Sachiko K.
Yaeko M. 1